Ethics and the Criminal Justice Profession Essay

Ethics and the Criminal Justice Profession - Essay Example In common ethical issues arising in the society, the criminal justice decides whether such act(s) could be ethically defended or not through the study of ethics. A case of ethical issue is shoplifting for the welfare of everybody in the family. In the utilitarian viewpoint of ethics, the above act could be defended provided that it is done because of providing the welfare of other individuals. Although the case is providing the necessaries for the family, such could still be considered utilitarian. In â€Å"retributive justice,† if an individual does an act of misconduct without any beneficial purpose, it is a manifestation of â€Å"imprudence,† but if it is done for a constructive purpose, it is justifiable (Hall, Dennis, and Chipman 348). In every act of an individual there really is a corresponding verdict. Yet, in cases concerning ethical judgments, more value of ethical justification is given to those acts which are done for beneficial purposes. Yet, it should also not be forgotten that in deciding over ethical issues, the rule of law and justice should always take its dominion. Furthermore, the ethical issues which are given greater ethical defenses could also be subjects to further justifications and scrutiny for an â€Å"other† party is also

Civil Rights Campaign During the Years 1945-57 Essay Example for Free

Civil Rights Campaign During the Years 1945-57 Essay There were many factors which contributed to the eventual success of the Civil Rights Movement during the years 1945- 57, a key example being the campaigns and peaceful protests of the NAACP which worked through the Supreme Court in the U. S. to tackle â€Å"de jure† discrimination. The group’s membership grew from 50,000 to 450,000 by 1945 and was the largest civil rights organisation at the time. Overall, the group had significant success in the years 1945- 57. However, the work of the NAACP alone was not solely responsible for the success of the Civil Rights campaign and other factors which contributed to this include, the influence of key figures such as Martin Luther King and the actions of the Federal Government, including both Congress, the Supreme Court and Presidents, the work of other known civil rights groups and the second World War, which alongside the NAACP, influenced black Americans awareness. It cannot be denied that the actions of the Civil Rights campaigning group, the NAACP, played a significant role in addressing â€Å"de jure† discrimination in particular before Martin Luther King was on the scene. The group supported Black Americans through the Supreme Court rulings in attempts to put an end to â€Å"de jure† discrimination. A significant example of how the NAACP was successful is the case of Brown V. Board of Education 2 in 1955; although successful during the first Brown case in 1954, the judgement of desegregating public schools was not enforced leading to the Brown case 2 which did successfully enforce the ruling. The judgement overruled the Plessy V Ferguson case of 1896 which allowed Jim Crow Laws. Plessy V. Ferguson was essentially the beginning of the ‘separate but equal’ ideology. Although a success in terms of â€Å"de jure† discrimination, it is important to remember that the NAACP did not deal with â€Å"de facto† discrimination, something which did hold the desegregation of public schools back in the first Brown case. Another key example of how the NAACP was successful is the case of Morgan V. Virginia in 1946 in which the group tried to put an end to segregation on public transport. As a whole, the NAACP did play a significant role in the progress towards improving the status of black Americans as it not only presented black Americans as united but also built up a positive representation of the minorities through their peaceful protests and campaigns. However, if there was to be any criticism of the NAACP, it would be their neglect of addressing â€Å"de facto† discrimination. Although the de jure victories were a success, they could not fully be successful as on some occasions, they could not be fully enforced due to the hostility of Southern White Americans in particular. A key example of this is the radical group the Ku Klux Klan who opposed African Americans violently and attempted to prevent Black Americans from making de fact and de jure change by intimidating them and subjecting them to extreme racial discrimination. It is also important to remember that although the NAACP was successful with the majority of their campaigns, it was ultimately down to the rulings of the Supreme Court to ensure that the judgements were passed. In terms of the Federal government, the extent of their influence during the years 1945- 55 is questionable as Congress in particular opposed most essentially positive developments put forward. For example, when Truman put forward his document, ‘To Secure These Rights’ which included an anti- lynching policy and voting rights for black Americans, congress denounced the document. However, Truman did have some positive contributions towards the Civil Rights Movement, for example, he did desegregate the armed forces something which Congress had no influence over. Although a positive development, it can be argued that Truman was not persistent enough to pursue trying to bring about racial equality. Unlike Truman, who appeared to favour the Civil Rights campaign, Eisenhower seemed less supportive of the movement. Nonetheless, he did enforce integration of a public school in1957 during the Little Rock campaign and towards the end of his Presidency he did enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1957 which focused on the voting rights of African Americans. Looking at the influence the Second World War had on black Americans, it cannot be denied that it did affect the Civil Rights campaign significantly. During the war, the U. S. needed the support the black community. As a result, the Fair Employment Practices Commission was set up to ensure that black Americans received fair treatment in government hiring. However, although on the service this seems like a success for the progress of the Civil Rights campaign, its success was limited as only a small number of black Americans were actually employed in the government. However, the war did increase prosperity amongst the Black community as many did have some form of employment. The involvement of black Americans fighting in the war also meant that many travelled abroad and became increasingly aware of the discrimination they were exposed to back in the U. S. The fact that the Second World War was about freedom and the U. S. were fighting to stop the persecution of minorities, in particular Jews, almost made the U. S. look like hypocrites as they themselves were actively discriminating against ethnic minorities. Overall, the impact of the Second World War is undeniable as it was also responsible for many black Americans migrating from the South to the North in order to find employment after 1945. This migration led to large tensions in Northern Ghetto’s and widespread riots which did bring about negative opinions of the black community and the civil rights campaign. It cannot be denied however, that the increase in Black consciousness did help the NAACP as it increased membership and support for the civil rights campaign. Probably the most well known and essentially influential figure involved in the Civil Rights campaign is Martin Luther King. Although he did not become largely involved in the campaign until 1955 during the Montgomery Bus boycott which did lead to the NAACP’s court case, Browder V.  Gayle, ruling segregation on buses illegal, King was successful in providing the Black communities with a political voice and building up widespread awareness through the media, something which helped to gain the civil rights movement more sympathy from White Americans, particularly in the North. King also founded the SCLC in 1957 which also helped contributed to the movement. However, during the early years of the campaign the NAACP can be seen as the most successful organisation in campaigning towards improving the status of Black Americans in the U. S. In conclusion, I believe that the NAACP was largely responsible for the success of the Civil Rights campaign in the years 1945- 57. However, I also believe that the group would not have been as successful in fighting de jure discrimination in the U. S. if it wasn’t for the actions of the Federal Government, in particularly the Supreme Court and the Presidents as these were essentially the ones responsible for the enforcing change. I also believe that the Second World War is also responsible, to some extent, in increasing awareness amongst the Black community which essentially led to increased popularity for the NAACP and its success.

The Merchant Of Venice :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

What They Cannot See In this world, there are many aspects of blindness whether it is mentally or physically. Either way, each blindness brings out the disability in each person. Such portrayal was shown throughout the play The Merchant of Venice. Shakespeare presents more than one form of blindness, which complicates the social order of the society, and I feel that the blindness, being their imperfection, creates tension between characters, which is weakened by blindness. When the characters are being blind, they are corrupted by their actions and somehow they do not care who they are hurting as long as they know they are getting the best out of something. Whether it being valuables, love, power, or respect.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Physical and mental blindness are seen throughout this play. They play a part in each character's daily lives and are the obstacle that prevents happiness. Old Gobbo, who is Launcelot's blind and feeble father, expresses physical and mental blindness when he approaches Launcelot and surprisingly asks him, 'Master young man, you, I pray you, which is the way to Master Jew's?'; (Pg. 21, lines 29-30) for he was looking for his son, Launcelot. Surprisingly Old Gobbo did not know that he was speaking to his son. Old Gobbo is nearly blind, which is the physical part of the blindness, which was one of the reasons why he unable to recognize Launcelot's features. He is also mentally blind because a father should recognize his own son's voice. Launcelot briefly jokes with his father before confessing '[he is] Launcelot – [his] boy that was, [his] son that is, [his] child that shall be,'; (Pg. 22, lines 78-79) but Old Gobbo still 'cannot think [he is his] son'; (Pg. 22 , line 80). Launcelot convinces himself that 'if [his father] had [his] eyes, [he] might fail of knowing [him]'; because 'it is a wise father that knows his own child'; (Pg. 22, lines 70-71). It is a shame that a father cannot recognize his own flesh and blood. This blindness concerns the relationship of a father and their child. Another blindness that concerns the relationship between a father and the child would have been between Portia and her dead father. Portia, the heroine of The Merchant of Venice, is forced to marry the suitor who chooses the correct casket left by her deceased father. When the Prince of Morocco, one of Portia's suitors, comes to Belmont to woo Portia, he daringly takes the test of choosing the correct casket.

Writing: Dependent Clause and Topic Sentence

contents entries found. PART A: INTRODUCTION 1. Rationale for choosing the topic: The ongoing process of regional and global integration in Vietnam has resulted in an increasing demand for English language teaching across the country. Learning English is currently not only an interest but also a practical thing for many people. Learning English means learning four related skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing. In teaching and learning English as a foreign language in Vietnam, writing has always received a great deal of attention.This is understandable, English is learnt and taught in non-English environment, therefore writing is not only one of the four language skills that students of English need to acquire but also a means of further study. Carrell (1981) stated that â€Å"For many students, writing is by far the most important of the four skills in a second language, particularly in English as a second or foreign language† (p. 1). Writing in general is one of th e most important skills for English learners, and academic writing in particular plays key role in helping learners to master the language.Learners of English language need to know how to write academically through the way they answer questions, discuss subjects or report research results. However, academic writing is never ever an easy task because it is the combinations of relation among audience, writer, organization and presentation (according to Swale, 1997). It can be understood that learners should keep in their mind to discover typical questions: â€Å"who are they going to write for? †, â€Å"what is the purpose of writing? † (What are the topic, position and argument? , how is the writing going to be organized and presented? It is also quite important to define â€Å"academic writing† to find which is necessary and sufficient. Academic writing normally starts from words, to phrase, clause, sentence, paragraph, and then essay. This assignment concentrat es on theory of academic paragraph writing including the definition and structure of a paragraph, parts of paragraph, mistakes ESL often make in writing paragraph academically. It is tried to find out and to compare typical non-academic and academic words and phrases using in paragraph writing.As teachers of English, we ourselves think that it is essential to do a research on the topic â€Å"Academic paragraph writing†. 2. Aims and objectives: 2. 1 Aims: This assignment concentrates on theory of academic paragraph writing. Findings will be studied to suggest appropriate instructional support to help learners improve their academic writing skill. 2. 2. Objectives: To be more specific, the objectives of this study are: – to investigate the theory towards academic paragraph writing. – to find out the common mistakes in academic writing to suggest ways to reduce the difficulties and help learners improve their writing skill by giving out example academic words and p hrases It is hoped that the findings from this study will be some benefits to teachers and students in universities. 3. Methodology In order to carry out the writing of this paper, we ourselves have based on the following methods. * The combination of diachronic and synchronic approaches * The teacher’s advice * The book reference In short, it is hoped that the paper will provide an introduction to the ways how to write academic paragraph writing.We are grateful to any comments on the paper. PART B: DEVELOPMENT I/ Theory of paragraph: 1. Definition of a paragraph: It is quite easy for learners to find out what is a paragraph. There are many ways to define this basing on different viewpoints. Followings are some of popular paragraph definitions. A paragraph is: – a distinct section of a piece of writing, usually dealing with a single theme and indicated by a new line, indentation, or numbering (Oxford Advanced learner Dictionary) – is a group of related sentences that discuss one main idea.A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea clearly. (Writing academic English – Alice Oshima and Alice Hogue – Longman, third edition) – a distinct portion of written or printed matter dealing with a particular idea, usually beginning with an indentation on a new line. It is one of a series of subsections each usually devoted to one idea and each usually marked by the beginning of a new line, indentation, and increases interlinear space. World English dictionary – Collins) It can be shortly understood that a paragraph is one part of a text which express one complete idea. 2. Structure of a paragraph: A paragraph normally includes a topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It not only names the topic of the para graph, but it also limits the topic to one specific area that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence.That is, they explain or prove the topic sentence by giving more information about it. The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with important points to remember. Concluding sentence is customary for stand-alone paragraph. However, paragraphs that are parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not concluding sentences. 2. 1. The topic sentence: 2. 1. 1. What is topic sentence? Topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph which clearly states the topic and the controlling idea of a paragraph, and briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss.For this reason, the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see what information to include. The reader can see what the paragraph is going to be about and is ther efore better prepared to understand it. 2. 1. 2. Position of topic sentences: The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. It can be placed in other locations depending on writers; however, the beginning of the paragraph seems to be the best spot. One of possible location for the topic sentence is at the end. 2. 1. 3. The two parts of a topic sentenceAs mentioned above, topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlling idea in which the topic names the subject of the paragraph, the controlling idea limits or controls the topic to a specific area to be discuss in the space of a single paragraph. Here is an example: Delicious foods are easy to prepare. TOPICCONTROLLING IDEA Following notices are expected to somehow help learners write good topic sentence: Firstly, the topic sentence should control or guide the whole paragraph. Topic sentence is good if it meet the readers’ need about what they expect to read in the paragraph.Secondly, a g ood topic sentence is not a general fact that everyone accepts as a true thing. An example illustrating this point can be seen through a bad topic like: â€Å"Libraries have books. † The information in this sentence is true; however, it is a general fact and is not a good choice for a topic sentence. Thirdly, a good topic sentence should be specific. For example, â€Å"Coffee is delicious. † is not a good topic sentence because the information in the sentence is too general. The reader does not know what to expect in the paragraph.The sentence can become better when it is written in a specific way, such as: â€Å"Black coffee has many benefits for your mentality. † However, it is important to know that topic sentence should not be too specific. Finally, a good topic sentence has controlling ideas which guide all the supporting sentences and give readers general expectation about what they are going to read about throughout the paragraph. 2. 2. Supporting sentenc es: 2. 2. 1. What is a good supporting sentence? Supporting sentences explain or prove the topic sentence. Good supporting entences are related to the topic sentence and its controlling ideas. They give information that supports and explains the topic of the paragraph. They answer questions – who? what? when? why? and how? – and give details. 2. 2. 2. Kinds of supporting sentences: There are several different kinds of supporting sentences going as follows with suitable examples: – explain: People move from village to big cities for economic reasons. – describe: They live in a nice house surrounded by fields of flowers. – give reasons: Tom finally drops from school because of bad results. give facts: About five percent of the A town’s population is immigrant. – give examples: Sugar cane and banana grow in South Africa. – define: My mother has a samovar, which is a large cooper tea urn. 2. 3. The concluding sentence: 2. 3. 1. Wha t is concluding sentence? Concluding sentence serves two purposes: – It signals the end of the paragraph. – It leaves the reader with the most important ideas to remember. It can do this in two ways: by summarizing the main points of the paragraph, or by repeating the topic sentence in different words.A paragraph does not always need a concluding sentence. For single paragraphs, especially long ones, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it is a reminder of the important points. However, a concluding sentence is not needed for every paragraph in a multi-paragraph essay. 2. 3. 2. What are good concluding sentences? To come up with the idea of a good concluding sentence, it is necessary for writer to think about some questions: – What is a good concluding sentence? – How do the concluding sentences relate to the topic sentence and to the supporting sentences?The concluding sentence’s job is to bring the paragraph to a logical conclus ion. The paragraph can be brought to an end with some formal signals: Finally, In brief, In conclusion, Indeed, In short, To sum up, All in all, Lastly†¦ It can end with some structures: The evidence suggests that†¦, There can be no doubt that†¦, These examples show that†¦, We can see that†¦ 2. 3. 3. Kinds of concluding sentences There are many different types of concluding sentences: restatement, suggestion, opinion, prediction. Restate the main idea is one of the easiest ways to write concluding sentence. Writers restate the main idea or summarize the main point of the paragraph. †¢ Offer a suggestion, give an opinion, or make a prediction are some of ways to write a concluding sentences, sometimes writers can do a combination of these options. 3. How to write a good paragraph academically? Academic paragraph writing needs good unity and coherence. †¢ Unity: â€Å"A paragraph is a group of sentences which relate to the topic and develop the cont rolling idea.If a sentence does not relate to or develop that idea, it is irrelevant of place and should be omitted. A good paragraph must be unified. †; â€Å"A paragraph has unity when all of its sentences, including the topic sentence support, and conclusion, relate to the same main idea. (Cited from â€Å"Let’s write 2† by Dang Ngoc Huong, 2007) It is clear to see that an important element of a good paragraph is unity. Unity means that a paragraph discusses one and only one main idea from beginning to end.The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea. †¢ Coherence: â€Å"A paragraph must have unity: all its ideas must refer to the topic (as above presented), moreover, another element of a good paragraph is coherence; coherence is an important quality of writing: all the ideas are presented logically and smoothly so that it is easy for the reader to follow the writer’s progression of ideas . In other words, a coherent paragraph contains sentences that are logically ordered and that flow smoothly.In order to achieve coherence of a paragraph, writers can use several ways in writing. † (According to Dang Ngoc Huong, Let’s write 2, 2007) For coherence in writing, the sentences must hold together; that is, the movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one. There are four ways to achieve coherence: 1. Repeat key nouns. 2. Use consistent pronouns. 3. Use transition signals to link ideas. 4. Arrange ideas in logical order.II/ Findings on academic paragraph writing There are many necessary things to form a good academic writing. English learners sometimes find it difficult to write in English, especially in academic style. It is our try to find out the three common mistakes in paragraph writing: run-on sentence, fragment and parallel structure; and academic equ ivalents of words or phrases to be helpful for learners to write academically. 1. Learners’ common mistakes in paragraph writing: As mentioned in the introduction, writing is always a not-easy task with most of English learners.It is due to the need for combining various skills and background knowledge when they do writing. This part is going to show common mistakes that learners often have in academic writing in general, and in paragraph writing in particular. 1. 1. Run-on sentence: A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses (i. e. , complete sentences) are joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunction. This is one of the most common mistakes appeared in academic writing. Following are suggested approaches to avoid the error: †¢ Use separate sentences.However, this may disconnect related independent clauses and cause some of the meaning to be lost: o It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark. †¢ Use a semico lon. This maintains the connection between the clauses while ensuring a pause between the two ideas: o It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark. †¢ Use a coordinating conjunction. o It is nearly half past five, so we cannot reach town before dark. 1. 2. Fragment: Fragment is a sentence which does not contain a subject or a predicate.A sentence fragment fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. There are several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence but not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought. †¢ It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such phrases, but it's still lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an independent clause: †¢ It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship: Example: In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.This sentence acco mplishes a great deal in terms of placing the reader in time and place, but there is no subject, no verb. Example: Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat. This is a verbal phrase that wants to modify something, the real subject of the sentence (about to come up), probably the she who was working so hard. †¢ It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important part of a verb string: Example: Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester. It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself: Example: Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker. This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it cannot stand by itself because of the dependent word (subordinating conjunction) even though. We need an independent clause to follow up this dependent cl ause: . . . the more powerful speaker, he lost the case because he didn't understand the jury. 1. 3.Parallel structure: This principle of parallel construction requires that expressions of similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and function. Unskillful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly vary the form of their expressions. It is true that in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it writers may need to vary its form. But apart from this, writers should follow carefully the principle of parallel construction. Faulty Parallelism |Corrected Version | |Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method, while now the |Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method; now it is | |laboratory method is employed. |taught by the laboratory method. | The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term. |Faulty Parallelism |Corrected Version | |The French, the Italians, Spanish, and Portuguese |The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and the Portuguese | |In spring, summer, or in winter |In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in summer, or in winter) |Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence. |Faulty Parallelism |Corrected Version | |It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. |The ceremony was both long and tedious. | |A time not for wo rds, but action |A ime not for words, but for action | |Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. |You must either grant his request or incur his ill will. | |My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second, that |My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, that | |it is unconstitutional. |it is unconstitutional. | When making comparisons, the things which are compared should be couched in parallel structures whenever that is possible and appropriate. Faulty Parallelism |Corrected Version | |My income is smaller than my wife. |My income is smaller than my wife's. | 2. Non-academic words and academic equivalents: It is necessary for learners to use academic words in academic paragraph writing. Because of limited space and time, our group just suggests example words and phrases in their simple form and academic equivalents as below. |Meaning |Simple word |Academic word | |Y tu? g / khai ni? m |idea |Concept / notion | |D? |enough |Suffic ient / adequate | |Phuong phap |way |Approach | |Thu du? c |get |obtain | |K? t qu? result |Consequence / outcomes | |Duy tri / gi? |keep |retain | |mua |buy |Purchase | |Duy nh? t |only |Unique / solely | |C? i thi? n |improve |enhance | |B? d? u |start |commence | |D? doan |predict |anticipate | |T? p trung |focus |concentrate | |Cu? i cung |final |Ultimately / eventually | |D? g |Stop / end / finish |Terminate / cease | |Tri hoan |Postpone / delay |Suspend | |R? i b? |Quit / give up |Abandon | |Ph? n |Part |Portion |PART C: CONCLUSION It is of the importance for English learners to discover definition of a paragraph, paragraph structure (topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence) in academic style along with the way of writing paragraph academically. Due to limited space, time and the limitation of writers’ knowledge, this assignment concentrates on theory of paragraph and discovers popular mistakes (run-on sentence, fragment, and parallel structure ) which learners normally make in writing paragraph academically.In addition, it is our try to take example and compare words in both non-academic and academic style with the hope that learners have awareness of using correct writing style. REFERENCES 1. Arnaudet, M. L. & Barrett, M. E. (1984). Approaches to Academic Writing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2. Brook, A. & Grunby, P. (1990). Writing for study purposes: a teacher’s guide to developing individual writing skills. CUP. 3. Campbell D. Better Sentence-Writing in 30 minutes a Day. Career Press 4. Doff, A. (1988). Teaching: a training course for teachers. Cambridge : CUP 5.Fries, C. (1945). Teaching and learning English as a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 6. Hennessy, B. (1994). How to write an essay. Plimbridge House. 7. Henry, J. & Pender, J. (1997). English for academic purposes: writing. Toowoomba, Qld: USQ Press for the Centre for Language Learning and Teaching 8. Huong, D. N (200 7). Let’s write: HOU 9. Murray, R. (2003). How to write a thesis. Maidenhead, Berkshire: Open University Press. 10. White, R. & McGovern, D. (1994). Writing. New York: Prentice Hall. 11. Grammar. ccc. commnet. edu/grammar/parallelism. htm

Nietzche’s Master and Slave Morality Essay

In Of the Genealogy of Morality, Nietzsche sought to provide context for what he saw as the central value system of the society in which he lived: slave-morality. Nietzsche saw morality as reflective of the conditions in which its proponents were brought up. He saw the roots of slave morality in oppression and slavery, and posits that it grew as a reaction to the morality of the masters of the time. What follows is a simplified account of Nietzsche’s master-slave dichotomy, and what he saw as the dire consequences for human progress should the pervasiveness of slave morality be allowed to remain at the expense of the master. I will argue that although religion and slave morality may have had significant influence in Nietzsche’s day, his fears about the stagnation of mankind through its adherence to slave morality are exaggerated and largely unfounded. I will also briefly discuss the applicability of slave-master morality to contemporary life. Nietzsche’s account of master and slave morality springs from a time of actual master-slave relationships. Master morality is found in those who have the power to create their own values to live by, without the need for approval from others. In Nietzsche’s own words, the master â€Å"honours everything he sees in himself. † They understand themselves as having an integral function in the universe, as resembling a kind of god, and therefore see goodness in those attributes which they find in themselves, and goodness in the values they themselves create. They see no reason to refer to others or seek another’s approval. Nietzsche’s idea of the Master comes from nobility, and so the central tenet of master morality is nobility; that those attributes found in a noble person are those that can be considered good. In master morality, a person is considered good if s/he is autonomous, strong-willed, brave, powerful, proud, able and happy in themselves. They see badness as a lack of that which is good-that is, a lack of the noble characteristics. Co-dependence and conformity are bad because they are not autonomy, weakness is bad because it isn’t strength, poverty is bad because it isn’t wealth, cowardice is bad because it isn’t bravery, and so on. The master respects his or her hierarchical equals, but the wellbeing of common folk is not his/her concern. The moral badness of the master’s subordinate does not have a significant impact on the master’s happiness or security, but only reinforces what he already knows: that s/he is a vastly superior being than those under him/her. In terms of actions, master morality is consequentialist: it judges the goodness of an action by its outcome. It is a morality of instinct and individualism, whereby the fulfilment of one’s animal desire is seen as a positive outcome no matter what actions were taken to obtain this fulfilment. Any action which leads to a positive outcome is seen as being a good action. Any action which has negative consequences for the master is seen as being inherently bad, regardless of the intentions behind it. In practice, this morality glorifies self-regard, greed and ruthlessness because these attributes lead to the best outcomes for the person who displays them. Nietzsche sees the basis for his master archetype in the violent and brutal emperors, warriors and warlords in ancient imperial civilizations: â€Å"Roman, Arab, German, Japanese nobility, Homeric heroes, Scandinavian Vikings† who represent â€Å"the blond beast splendidly roaming around in its lust for loot and victory. Master moralists are rarely unhappy, as the primary goal of their actions is their own wellbeing and happiness. They are able enjoy to the fruits of their various conquests, unburdened by the weaknesses guilt or remorse. Slave morality could not exist without master morality, as it is first and foremost a reaction to it, a â€Å"revolt† against it. Slave morality stems from ressentiment or resentment the slave feels towards the master. The master feels, at most, condescension or smug pity towards the slave. By contrast, the slave is consumed by hatred and bitterness towards the master, and sees the master as responsible for his or her misfortune. This resentment and bitterness leads to the slave adopting a mentality which demonises the master, and which holds up as good those attributes which are unlike that of the oppressor. Characteristics shown by the master are â€Å"evil† and goodness is seen in the traits which oppose them, e. g. Humility, obedience, restraint, self-denial, modesty, patience and acceptance of one’s fate. Slave morality does not aim for self-ascension or self-gratification. Its aims centre on utility: the reduction of suffering for the greatest number of people. It sees evil in the self-aggrandizement and the ruthlessness and violence of the master. Where master morality is for the elite few, slave morality is a value system for the masses. The values inherent in slave morality, not coincidentally, are almost synonymous with Judeo-Christian moral ideals; Judaism and Christianity were, in the past, religions of the poor and the oppressed. Nietzsche sees, in the reactionary nature of slave morality and its dishonest demonization of its oppressors, a desire to make slaves of the masters. Violence and vengefulness are anathema to slave morality, however, if the slave moralists can universalise their value system – through religion, for example – they can convince the masters that they are evil, and in doing so lessen their power and take revenge for past evils. Nietzsche sees slave morality, especially the universalisation of it through religion, as harmful and damaging to human progress. However, he does not see it as an unreasonable reaction to oppression, and suggests that the slave is in fact cleverer than the master, even if this cleverness is often exercised through self-deception. In contrast to the consequentialism of master morality, slave morality can be seen as a deontological morality. It determines an action’s goodness by looking at the actor’s intention: to slave moralists, the ends do not, necessarily, justify the means. The nature of acts and their actors plays an important role in Nietzsche’s discussion of morality. Slaves believe in and strive for freedom and see evil in the masters’ oppression of them, as they believe they perform these acts of oppression of their own free will. They believe that, because the masters are free agents, they should be held responsible for their actions and criticized for them. Nietzsche disputes this view, and demonstrates his argument using the analogy of the eagles and the lambs: â€Å"That lambs dislike great birds of prey does not seem strange: only it gives no ground for reproaching these birds of prey for bearing off little lambs. And if the lambs say among themselves: ‘these birds of prey are evil; and whoever is least like a bird of prey, but rather its opposite, a lamb – would he not be good? ‘ there is no reason to find fault with this institution of an ideal, except perhaps that birds of prey might view it a little ironically and say ‘we don’t dislike them at all, these good little lambs; we even love them: nothing is more tasty†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Nietzsche claims that asking masters to act with humility or restraint is akin to asking a bird of prey not to hunt to feed itself. He believes that slaves separate the being from the action and in doing so are able to condemn the masters for the supposed evils they perform. Nietzsche believes the slaves are dishonest in this, because the master acts in strength not because he wants to cause harm to the others, but because he is strong and powerful and should not be expected to act as if he is otherwise. It would be against the eagle’s nature to act against his own self-interest, and the same applies to the master. He believes the slaves are practicing self-deception in claiming goodness is theirs because they choose to be humble when, in fact, slaves are only humble and restrained because these traits were forced upon them through slavery, or through their own inherent weakness. He does not blame the slave for being this way – the slave performs these acts of self-deception in order to survive and affirm his/her own existence as worthwhile – but, again, sees the increasing prevalence of the slave mindset as harmful for society as a whole. He saw, in the democratic fight for equality, a movement towards mediocrity and stagnation. Nietzsche saw the move towards democracy in the western world as a logical continuation of slave morality’s influence, calling the democratic movement â€Å"†¦the heir of the Christian movement. † (BGE 151) The principle of equality on which democracy in based was profoundly unreasonable to Nietzsche, given the obvious inequalities within the human race. He believed that in order to enforce equality, strong men are lowered to the value of weak men, to the point where ambition and ingenuity goes unrewarded and progress stagnates. He looks back on times of scarcity and warfare, when enterprise and domination were rewarded and respected because they were necessary. Now, the west has given itself over to a herd mentality, where such attributes are seen as â€Å"dangerous†¦ [and] branded as immoral. † When an individual does raise his or herself above the herd through ambition or excellence, the community’s self-confidence is diminished. The herd takes comfort in the fact that, in their eyes and/or the eyes of their god, this individual must be immoral. Judeo-Christianity was the dominant religion in the west during the 19th century, and democracy did become the dominant political system during this time. However, although most of the sentiment behind it seems to hold true, there are flaws in Nietzsche’s argument that this is evidence of the overarching adoption of slave morality, and that this adoption created a stagnation of ambition or progress. Put simply, Nietzsche must argue the following: 1. Slave morality has triumphed over master morality in the west. 2. Progress stagnates under slave morality because excellence is not rewarded but condemned, 3. Progress has stagnated and excellence is condemned in contemporary western society. But we can look to the history of the late 19th century to see that the progress made in that time was not insignificant. The invention of the motor car, the telephone, the light bulb, among other things, is a sign that creativity and ambition was certainly not altogether stifled. While democracy provided the political framework, capitalism (primarily an individualistic economic system) flourished and rewarded enterprise and ambition with money and influence. This shows one of two things to be true: slave morality’s influence over western society was not as pervasive as Nietzsche claims OR its influence was not as damaging to human progress as he believed it was. If, as Nietzsche claims, master morality is a necessary condition for the advancement of society, it must not have been defeated entirely, for society was and is advancing. Nietzsche’s account of the master-slave dichotomy is more difficult still to apply to modern western society, although I doubt Nietzsche himself would try to do so. While our individual morality may still come from external sources, these days the sources are likely to be many and varied, rather than from a single religious viewpoint. Individual morality grows and evolves from experience. And while the culture of our society may endorse elements present in Nietzsche’s slave morality (compassion, modesty and patience, for example, are certainly not seen as bad things,) we also see a culture where achievement and ambition is not stifled but rewarded. We see celebration of athletes, who embody the strength, beauty and pride present in a Nietzschean master. We want our leaders to be honest, active, strong willed and brave, but raise concern if they are seen to lack compassion, or are too boastful, or do not seek to reduce suffering. Nietzsche’s Genealogy is convincing in its methodological approach to understanding the opposing moralities it discusses. It is logical that masters, the strong and elite, should seek no comfort or endorsement from external sources when they have total faith in themselves. That slaves sought out comfort in a morality based in religion, which holds up piousness and selflessness as virtues, makes sense as a survival strategy and as a way for these slaves to carve out meaning in their difficult lives. In discussing the impact on society in his time, Nietzsche despairs that of these two moralities, the slaves are winning, through the growth of democracy throughout the west. Perhaps, instead, the growth of democracy led to an evolution of western morality. Through the evolution of our class system beyond master and slave, our culture has become more multifaceted. Our relations with those above and below us has become more nuanced, and so too has our morality.

Explorting Masculine And Feminie Roles Essays - Free Essays

Explorting Masculine And Feminie Roles Essays - Free Essays Explorting Masculine And Feminie Roles EXPLORING THE MASCULINE AND FEMININE IN ISABEL ALLENDE'S THE HOUSE OF THE SPIRITS By Jodi Denny Old Dominion University Copyright (c) 1997 Jodi Denny This document may not be reprinted without the permission of the author. For permission, contact: [emailprotected] Isabel Allende's novel The House of the Spirits is woven with dichotomy. Opposing forces are juxtaposed: rich and poor, good and evil, political left and right, birth and death, and the forces that will be explored in this paper, the masculine and feminine. The masculine and feminine are equal in importance to the world of the novel, indeed, the existence of one depends on the existence of the other. The danger lies in the fact that the masculine overshadows the feminine so much that the existence of the feminine is threatened. If women are a nation's primary, fundamental root from which all else grows and blossoms (Ba 61), this threat to the feminine is a threat to the world of the novel itself. The novel illustrates the dangers of an imbalance of the masculine and feminine within the individual, the family, and nation. This paper will explore the concepts of the masculine and the feminine within the novel in the context of Carl Jung's theory of the anima and animus. Jung recognized distinctive features in the psyche of men and women. He analyzed these differences in his study of the anima and animus. The anima is the personification of the feminine nature of man's unconscious; the animus the masculine nature of a woman's unconscious. In her book Women in Twentieth Century Literature: A Jungian View, Bettina L. Knapp explains that Jung believes the woman's psyche to be the adverse and reverse of the man's complementary to his. He has remarked time and time again that Eros, or the principle of relatedness and feeling, is dominant in the female; that Logos, the analytical way, the power to discriminate and judge is supreme in the male (6). Jung's theory says that logic and objectivity are usually the predominate features of a man's outer attitude, or at least regarded as ideals, and in a woman it is feeling (Walz). Marian L. Pauson elaborates on Jung's concept of the anima and animus in Jung the Philosopher: Essays in Jungian Thought. She asserts that the animus pole is often projected in different media as directed, didactic, forceful, functional, rational, and serious while the anima pole is projected as fanciful, imaginative, colorful, lyrical, light, intuitive, decorative, and amusing (97). On a deeper level, she discusses the emotional tension of the polarities within the masculine and feminine, their shadow and transcendence. The shadow of the anima is manifested as irrationality and chaos; the transcendence as inspiration and intuitive vision. The shadow of the animus is manifested as cruelness, cunning and brute force, the transcendence as practical wisdom (98). Jung asserts that these opposing natures can come together in an individual's search for selfhood, which represents a balance between the opposing forces within the personality. This results in what Jung calls androgyny: individuals who have fully developed both the masculine and feminine aspects of their personality. The manner by which these opposite natures can be reconciled into wholeness is called paradoxical unity (Walz). Jung claims that life is founded on the harmonious interplay of masculine and feminine forces, within the individual human as well as without (Bennet 128). Jung seems to suggest that a reconciliation of these opposites within the self, and within the larger realm of society, is necessary in order to obtain peace and enlightenment within both, is necessary as a foundation for life itself. Whether Jung's cited differences in the male and female psyche are psychologically innate or whether they have been inscribed on the collective conscious by patriarchal dominance is debatable. It would be sexist, indeed, to define certain traits as purely masculine or feminine. Obviously men don't have the exclusive right to logic and thought nor women to emotion and intuition. Many feminists have criticized Jung's definitions of the masculine and feminine. In Jung and Feminism Demaris S. Wehr says that Jung defined the feminine largely in terms of receptivity and remarks that some people reject Jung's notion of the feminine and its corresponding receptivity. They argue that Jung is stereotyping women once again, depriving them of being agents in their own right (6). Others believe the opposite, that feminine receptivity is a quality much needed in

Reflections Upon Three Philosophers, Past to Present essays

Reflections Upon Three Philosophers, Past to Present essays Epicurus (341-270 BCE) was among the first of the great hedonists in the time of Ancient Greece. Epicurus argued that pleasure is fundamental in experiencing a "good life", that the best life is one that is as pleasant as can be, and that "each individual ought to maximize his or her own pleasure." To obtain this, Epicurus encouraged that individuals seek moderation and prudence in all things, acting justly and honorably, seeking pleasure over pain, and pursuing simplicity. Epicurus also believed that, at times, it is appropriate to sacrifice some current pleasures for greater pleasures. He advocates that we stay away from pain and harm in our lives, and Epicurus talks of humankind's false beliefs in death. According to Epicurus, "something can harm us only if it causes negative sensations". In his view, when you are dead you are incapable of feeling any kind of sensation, therefore death cannot harm the dead. So since death cannot harm us once we are dead, it is "foolish to fear death while we are still living." Instead, we should seek freedom from as much pain and fear as we possibly can. There are three types of desire laid out to us by Epicurus: Natural and Necessary, Natural and Unnecessary, and Vain. Unlike Epicurus who focused on Natural and Necessary desires such as basic food, water, shelter, and companionship, in today's society many would rather obtain Natural and Unnecessary pleasures like money, huge houses, multiple sex partners, and alcohol. There are some Epicurean points that don't stand up very well to scrutiny. In Epicurus' thinking, one should maximize as much pleasure as one can, while staying away from pain. Some pleasures, however, are indeed worth the pain you must go through, and for some, to be able to maximize pleasure you must go through pain at some point. That is, in fact, what adds to the pleasure. For example, for four to five months a young athlete may work e...

The Beautiful, the Sublime, and the Picturesque

The Beautiful, the Sublime, and the Picturesque The beautiful, the sublime, and the picturesque are three key concepts in aesthetics and philosophy of art. Together, they help to map the variety of aesthetically significant experiences. The differentiation among the three concepts took place in seventeenth and eighteenth hundreds, and is still to these days of some significance, despite the difficulty in pinning down each of the three concepts. The Beautiful The beautiful is a widely employed term, referring typically to aesthetic experiences that are pleasing, while to some extent transcending preferences and needs that are specific to an individual. That is, the experience of something beautiful will please a subject for reasons that reach beyond the subjective inclinations of the subject and that can be experienced also by many - some maintain all - other subjects. It is debated whether the appreciation of beauty rests primarily on a sensory experience of an object of an event, as empiricists maintain, or rather on an appreciation of the object or event that requires understanding, as rationalists maintain. The Sublime The sublime, on the other hand, is a transformative experience typically associated with some negative pleasure and elicited by the encounter of an object or situation whose quantity transcends the limits of our actual grasp. Imagine contemplating the sea, or the sky, an immense quantity of garbage, or a mesmerizing infinite series of numbers: all those experiences can, potentially, elicit the idea of the sublime. To aesthetic theorists of late seventeenth hundreds, the sublime was a crucial concept. By means of it, they explained why it is possible to have aesthetic experiences that are associated with some degree of discomfort or, in the most remarkable cases, to awe. Beauty, they claimed, is nothing like this. In beauty, we do not experience negative feelings and our aesthetic appreciation is not mysteriously associated with that which is experienced. Indeed, the experience of the sublime gives rise to a paradox of the sublime: we find aesthetic reward in having an experience that, at once, we associate with some negative form of pleasure.It has been debated whether the sublime can be elicited by natural objects or by natural phenomena. In mathematics, we encounter the idea of infinity, which may elicit the idea of the sublime. In phantasy or mystery stories we may experience the sublime too, because of what deliberately remains untold. All of those experiences, however, depend on some human craft. But, can nature elicit the idea of the sublime? The Picturesque To make room for a sui generis aesthetic experience of natural objects or phenomena, the category of picturesque was introduced. The picturesque is not indefinite, and yet it allows for some vagueness as to that which elicits the aesthetic response. The view of the Grand Canyon or the view of the ruins of ancient Rome can elicit a picturesque response. We can place some boundaries to that which we are experiencing, and yet the aesthetic worth of the scenery is not attributable to any specific element, which we may term as beautiful.In this three-partition of aesthetic experiences, then, the experience of beauty is the most defined and, perhaps, the most secure. Sublime and Picturesque will be cherished by the adventurous. They are crucial in pinpointing the aesthetic specificity of certain types of literature, music, movies, and visual art.

Vocational research paper on a career - lawyer Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vocational on a career - lawyer - Research Paper Example The certificate is called pre-law degree. The training is available at universities or law schools. An individual practicing to be a lawyer must pass through the Bar examination, ethics examination and graduate from a law school (The Lawyers Almanac 2011: The Leading Reference of Vital Facts and Figures about the Legal Profession 301). Education requirement for practicing lawyers is set by each school and normally the fees charged for the training ranges from & $150,000 to over $200, 000. In addition, the entry in the bar examination depends on each state’s bar association. The duration taken to study law differ in countries and law schools. An example is that, in the UK, it is: The LLB is 3 years, and the LLM is one year course. Conversely, in the US: A J.D. will take three years to complete after you have spent four years completing a bachelors degree (Walton 95). There are different kinds of lawyers amongst them judicial clerks being paid an average of $54,000, Prosecutors $35,000 to $90,000, public defender $35,000 to $57,000, and federal government lawyer $ 62, 467 as of 2012(The Authoritative Guide Careers for the Year 2000 and Beyond: Everything You Need to Know to Find the Right Career 118). Law as a profession also has various prominent personalities who act as a role model to aspiring lawyers to be. They are Nelson Mandela, Gandhi, Fidel Castro, Dick Button and Jeffrey Chodorow (Basu 192). Demand of people in the profession of law is rather disturbing since most law schools are producing an excess of graduates lawyers. These lawyers are not proportionated with the available employment opportunities available in the nation and the result is unemployment for most graduates lawyers and decreased pay as there are many lawyers available in the market (Occupational Outlook Handbook 256). In conclusion, law is a extremely essential profession since it is

Mechanical testing of metals and polymers Assignment - 2

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The Retirement of Terry Leahy's from Tesco Case Study - 1

The Retirement of Terry Leahy's from Tesco - Case Study Example The departure of a chief executive from any company attracts huge expectations in as far as changes in management are concerned as suggested by Toni and Tonchia (p947). The change can positive or even unsetting one depending on the leaving chief executive influence. The retired chief executive officer of Tesco spent his career developing the organization to be the biggest grocer in Britain. However, his successor Phillip Clarke will face the challenge of either maintaining the position or breaking the company. The retailer has a wide range of products ranging from food to furniture as well as mortgages and motor scooters. It has several outlets including its headquarters in Cheshunt and its branches in China. Tesco customers include buyers of high-quality goods and low-cost goods while stores range from mega-stores to corner shops. One of the major changes that have been encountered by the retailer since the retirement of Leahy is financial management. Since the set up of a joint ven ture with Royal bank which was done Leahy’s predecessor, Tesco has been offering financial services. According to Anon (69), this section has rapidly grown offering services such as loans, insurance, and credit cards. One of the financial changes includes the now fully owned Tesco Bank which is aiming at becoming a great competitor to other banks. So far Tesco is selling its financial products to almost six million customers. Last year, the retailer launched a range of mortgages and savings account while in the current year Tesco is planning to launch a current account. The retail organization also intends to capitalize the discontent of customers through their current jobs. A focus by Liz Hartley who is principal consultant indicates that Tesco Bank will be among the top ten best banks in the country within the next five years. However, the growth of the bank is likely to cause more changes in the organization since banks are valued in a very different way compared to a retailer.

Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods Essay

Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods - Essay Example The paper "Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods" concerns leather goods and fashion. For instance, City Fringe, an area located in the inner part of London comprised of about 189 fashion business firms. Among these almost every firm was recorded to be stagnant or in the struggling stage. In other words, the fashion business firms were somewhat unable to cope with the industry changes resulting in inefficiency in terms of productivity, pro-activeness, and competency. Due to this reason, a better effective investment plan was adapted by the market players in order to achieve their desired goal and reward a feasible amount of sustainability to the business. This paper therefore shall concentrate on the significance of micro and macro economic environment of the UK, related to the fashion market. It is basically due to the reason that fashion market trends categorised as luxury goods are highly depended on the issue of customer affordability and preferences. Hence, the influenc es of fluctuations arise in the micro and the macro environment of a particular business firm, i.e., LVMH. LVMH Moà «t Hennessy Louis Vuitton SA was incorporated in 1987 by merging two leading fashion business groups i.e., the Louis Vuitton and Moet-Hennessy. The group is among the world’s leading groups to trade luxury goods such as perfumes, cosmetics, wine and even designer fashion and leather goods. The company division related to the manufacturing and marketing of designer made fashion and leather goods.

Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Clustering Stock Market Companies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8000 words

Clustering Stock Market Companies - Essay Example It is often seen that business houses in clusters are more successful than those businesses doing identical trade or commercial ventures but are separated from each other, either through geographical distances or other barriers which do not offer their clustering. Not only are clusters more successful in terms of profitability and growth indicators but they are also well-positioned in terms of good management structures and high share value with respect to the companies who are not clustered. It is often found that in many countries the situation of certain similar industries is in close geographical proximity to each other. For instance, computer firms are found in the US in Silicon Valley and Bangalore in India, and they are proliferating exponentially in the recent times. This geographical proximity also gives rise to clustering and has a positive impact on the company's growth since all the members of the cluster would be able to contribute to the economic welfare of the State to which it belongs. The concept of clustering is fundamentally to determine the essential grouping or collation of data, and in the contest of business enterprises could be used to consider important aspects like revenue generation, profit making corporation and the main location aspects of the business. Through this research it is tried to focus upon the important aspects that work in the case of Clustering and how this aspect impacts upon the economy of the country. Clustering could be used for a variety of applications depending upon the desired results or objectives and could help in studying areas of interest like biology, insurance, seismic recordings for earthquakes, World Wide Web (www) where it is necessary to determine the pattern of behaviour in seemingly discrete and unorganized data. For instance in determining census reports, a lot of mass of data from all over the districts are collated and gathered and for arriving at the correct distributional patterns among the vast mass of data and to provide intelligent and coherent analysis and interpretations for the data . This could be done through the use of cluster formation which would distribute the similar data in identical formatting and thus help in achieving the desired ends and conclusions regarding the distribution and behaviour patterns of the data under study. The main determinants of clustering would be therefore in terms of Ability to make valid measurements and coherent analysis Assign attributes to the data based on the findings of clustering Formulating data with the various designs for implementation of decisions Established the least requirement for domain knowledge and determining the inputs that could provide valid outputs measurements and the basis for arriving at logical conclusions It is to be noted that the domain is not concerned with the order of the inputs recording since the processing would be based on similar identification and not other criteria High dimensionality would have to be accorded to the data being researched since this would impinge upon the final results It is also necessary that the data on clustering has high degree of usability in the academic context There are different types of clustering and they could be seen in the contest of Exclusive clusters, overlapping clusters, hierarchical clusters and probable clusters. The Euclidean distance would be the

Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique - Essay Example The paper under consideration was one of his initial developments about the subject, and was recognized, and published in the Journal of Genetic Psychology in the year 1996. Summary This paper leads to the awareness of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (later referred to as ADHD in this critique), primarily by means of discussing the various theories associated to ADHD and the possible adaptive function. The author agrees to the fact that no single theory succeeds at explaining the occurrence and presence of ADHD. Previously, however, it might have served as an adaptive function. The need for analyzing this issue comes from a clear pattern that shows distinctive behavioral changes amongst children, and some of them continue to show the same for longer periods of times. The research paper shows clear facts that approximately 5% of the school aged children are affected by ADHD and some half of these stabilize towards complete disorder in the later part of their ages. Identifying the need of this research by stating these facts and the need to understand this issue, the author then moves towards identifying the clinical features i.e. the symptoms of this issue leading towards the disorder. The author then refers to the biology of ADHD, where he describes the genetic reasoning of the issue.

Evaluating benefits of networks and performing network management Essay

Evaluating benefits of networks and performing network management responsibilities - Essay Example Local Area Networks (LAN) can be described in various configurations and layouts referred to as Network Topology. Network topology determines the connectivity and communications mode of nodes on a network. Topologies are described as either physical or logical.The most popular network topologies are:Bus topology provides the simplest network connection. A single cable connects all the computers and network peripherals. Each node communicates with any other node by using the physical address of the network card of the destination node. This physical address is called the Media Access Control (MAC) address. The cables are terminated at both ends. All network equipment or nodes are connected by cables to a central connection unit, or hub. The nodes communicate with each other via the hub. The hub could be a Server or a Router. The figure below shows a star network wiring.In a ring topology, all the nodes are linked in a logical circle. Data circulates from node to node via a connection unit known as Multi-station Access Unit (MAU). Note that a closed loop is formed with the cable returning to the first device.Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the network. As the number of nodes increases, so does the complexity and cost. They are not popular with LANs but are often used in WANs. 1.1 Advantages & Disadvantages of Networks in an Organization The following advantages follow from installing and managing efficiently, a LAN in an organization. Increased productivity: According to Forbes.com a 20% increase in productivity can be attained since less time is wasted searching for files or managing files manually. Data loss reduced :LANs server software provides facilities for automatic file backup and easy retrieval in accidental deletion. Protection of Business Information: Built-in firewall protection and secure remote access guards your network. Other security software are available to protect your network from Internet intruders: spam, e-mail attachments and spammers. Business Access anytime, anywhere: A LAN allows you to connect to your business anytime and from anywhere you have access to the Internet. Improved Team Performance: Your workers can work better as a team when they can share information resident on the LAN and collaborate anytime. Resources Sharing and Costs Reduction: LANs enable your organization to share resources such as Internet access and business software; equipment such as printers. Some of the disadvantages of LANs include the risk of exposure to the evils of the Internet , namely Internet fraud, identity theft, and loss of useful data that was not backed up before a network fails. 1.2 The OSI Reference Model A discussion on networks and network

Project Management and Innovation Past and Future Essay Example for Free

Project Management and Innovation Past and Future Essay It is unsurprising that development of innovation is often run as a project. Yet, theoretically both project management and innovation studies have evolved over time as distinctively separate disciplines. In this paper we make an attempt to conceptualize the innovation project management and past as well as future of same. By doing so, we contribute to the nascent academic debate on the interplay between innovation and project management. This paper is concerned with three topics and the interplay between them, namely â€Å"Innovation†, â€Å"Research and Development (RD)† and â€Å"Project Management†. The interest in these topics has exploded recently as they emerged both on the policy agenda and in the corporate strategies. The contribution of technological innovation to national economic growth has been well established in the economic literature. In the last couple of decades, new technologies, new industries, and new business models have powered impressive gains in productivity and GDP growth. While originally there was a tendency to equate RD and innovation, contemporary understanding of innovation is much broader than purely RD. RD is one component of innovation activities and knowledge creation among others. Innovation emerges as a pervasive and complex force, not only in the high-tech sectors in advanced economies, but also as a phenomenon existing in low-tech industry of developing, or catching-up economies. Still, the link between RD and innovation is often at the core of the innovation studies. Presently, we are witnessing â€Å"projectification† of the world as a growing number of specialists organise their work in projects rather than on on-going functional basis. The connection between RD and project management has a long history. Most tools of project management have been developed from the management of RD, often with military purposes (Lorell, 1995). The most vivid example of managing RD projects in the public sector is the PRINCE2 method (UK OGC, 2005). Due to the above mentioned difference between RD and innovation, RD projects should be distinguished from innovation projects too. Innovation is a non-linear process, not necessarily technology-led and may not necessarily result from formal RD investments. Innovation is the exploration and exploitation of new ideas and recombination of existing knowledge in the pursuit of sustained competitive advantage. Besides, both innovation and RD projects by their nature differ from conventional projects. Thus, there is a need to examine the Innovation Project Management (IPM) as a distinctive area of managing innovation in projects, using the tools and methods of the project management. The Evolution of Project Management Theory The genesis of the ideas that led to the development of modern project management can arguably be traced back to the protestant reformation of the 15th century. The Protestants and later the Puritans introduced a number of ideas including ‘reductionism’, ‘individualism’ and the ‘protestant work ethic’ (PWE) that resonate strongly in the spirit of modern project management. Reductionism focuses on removing unnecessary elements of a process or ‘ceremony’ and then breaking the process down into its smallest task or unit to ‘understand’ how it works. Individualism assumes we are active, independent agents who can manage risks and create ideas. These ideas are made into ‘real things’ by social actions contingent upon the availability of a language to describe them. The PWE focuses on the intrinsic value of work. Prior to the protestant reformation most people saw work either as a necessary evil, or as a means to an end. For Protestants, serving God included participating in and working hard at worldly activities as this was part of God’s purpose for each individual. From the perspective of the evolution of modern project management, these ideas were incorporated into two key philosophies, Liberalism and Newtonianism. Liberalism included the ideas of capitalism (Adam Smith), the division of labour, and that an industrious lifestyle would lead to wealthy societies Newton saw the world as a harmonious mechanism controlled by a ‘universal law’. Applying scientific observations to parts of the whole would allow understanding and insights to occur and eventually a complete understanding. LITERATURE REVIEW In this paper we seek to establish bridges between two distinctive disciplines – project management and innovation management (innovation studies). Despite seemingly interrelated nature of both subjects, these two research domains have been developing relatively isolated from each other. Innovation Studies Innovation studies are rooted in the seminal writing of Joseph Schumpeter in the 1920s-1930s (e. g. Schumpeter, 1934), whose ideas started to gain popularity in the 1960s, as the general interest among policymakers and scholars in technological change, RD and innovation increased. The field formed as a distinctive academic discipline from the 1980s. Scholars like Richard Nelson, Chris Freeman, Bengt-Ake Lundvall, Keith Pavitt, Luc Soete, Giovanni Dosi, Jan Fagerberg, Bart Verspagen, Eric von Hippel and others have shaped and formed this discipline. The seminal publications in the area include, inter alia, Freeman (1982), Freeman and Soete (1997), Lundvall (1992), Nelson and Winter (1977, 1982), von Hippel (1988). Regarding the definition of innovation – a general consensus has been achieved among innovation scholars who broadly understand this phenomenon as a transformation of knowledge into new products, processes and services. An in-depth review of the innovation literature is beyond the scope of this paper (refer to Fagerberg (2004) for such analysis). Our intention is to outline main directions of research. In a recent paper, Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009) provide a comprehensive analysis of the cognitive and organizational characteristics of the emerging field of innovation studies and consider its prospects and challenges. The authors trace evolution and dynamics of the field. Reflecting the complex nature of innovation, the field of innovation studies unites various academic disciplines. For examples, Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009) define four main clusters of innovation scholars. They are â€Å"Management† (cluster 1), â€Å"Schumpeter Crowd† (cluster 2), â€Å"Geography and Policy† (cluster 3. 1), Periphery† (cluster 3. 2) and â€Å"Industrial Economics† (cluster 4). For the purposes of our analysis we shall have a closer look at the â€Å"Management† cluster, since it is here where the connection between innovation and Project Management can be found. In fact â€Å"Management† is the smallest cluster within the entire network of innovation scholars, consisting of only 22 scholars, mainly sociologists and management scholars, with a geographical bias towards the USA. This small number of scholars (22) is in sharp contrast with the biggest clusters ? â€Å"Geography and Policy† (298 scholars) or â€Å"Schumpeter Crowd† (309). In terms of publication preferences, apart from Research Policy, the favorite journal for innovation scholars, members of â€Å"Management† cluster see management journals as the most relevant publishing outlets, particularly Journal of Product Innovation Management, Management Science and Strategic Management Journal. Fagerberg and Verspagen (2009, p. 29) see a strong link between innovation and management and provide a following description: â€Å"Management is to some extent a cross-disciplinary field by default and firm-level innovation falls naturally within its portfolio. †¦. So between innovation studies and management there clearly is some common ground†. Project Management The project management as a human activity has a long history; e. g. construction of Egyptian pyramids in 2000 BC may be regarded as a project activity. However, the start for the modern Project Management era, as a distinctive research area, was in the 1950s. Maylor (2005) determines three major stages of the PM historical development. Before the 1950s, the PM as such was not recognized. In the 1950s, tools and techniques were developed to support the management of complex projects. The dominant thinking was based on â€Å"one best way† approach, based on numerical methods. The third stage, from the 1990s onwards is characterized by the changing environment in which projects take place. It is more and more realized that a project management approach should be contingent upon its context. It is also noted that a shift is observed over time in development of project management – from focus on sole project management to the broader management of projects and strategic project management (Fangel, 1993; Morris, 1994; Bryde, 2003). Reflecting these changes in the managerial practices, the body of academic literature on PM has evolved and burgeoned. International Journal of Project Management and Project Management Journals became the flagship publication outlets for PM scholars and practitioners. A large number of (managerial) handbooks outlining the methods and techniques of PM have been published, e. g. Andersen et al (2004), Bruijn et al (2004) Kerzner (2005), Maylor (2005), Meredith and Mantel (2006), Muller (2009), Roberts (2007), Turner (1999), Turner and Turner (2008). Despite a growing number of publications, there is no unified theoretical basis and there is no unified theory of project management, due to its multidisciplinary nature (Smyth and Morris, 2007). Project management has a more applied nature than other management disciplines. Although the PM has formed as a distinct research field, there is no universal, generally accepted definition of a project and project management. Turner (1999) develops a generic definition of a project: A project is an endeavor in which human, financial and material resources are organized in a novel way to undertake a unique scope of work, of given specification, which constraints of cost and time, so as to achieve beneficial change defined by quantitative and qualitative objectives. There have been several attempts to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art research in PM and outline its trends and future directions (e. g. , PMI, 2004; Betts and Lansley, 1995; Themistocleous and Wearne, 2003; Crawford et al, 2006; Kloppenberg and Opfer, 2002). In a recent article, Kwak and Anbari (2009) review relevant academic journals and identify eight allied disciplines, in which PM is being applied and developed. These disciplines include such areas as Operation Management, Organizational Behavior, Information Technology, Engineering and Construction, Strategy/Integration, Project Finance and Accounting, and Quality and Management. Notably, one of these eight allied disciplines is â€Å"Technology Application / Innovation / New Product Development / Research and Development†. The authors found that only 11% of journal publications on the subject of project management fell under the â€Å"Innovation† heading. Yet, importantly, this area showed sustained upward interest, and hence the number of publications, since the 1960s. Overall, Kwak and Anbari (2009) conclude that the mainstream PM research proceeds largely in the â€Å"Strategy / Integration / Portfolio Management / Value of PM / Marketing† direction (30% of all publications examined by the authors). PM AND INNOVATION: THE PAST Projects in one form or another have been undertaken for millennia, but it was only in the latter part of the 20th century people started talking about ‘project management’. Earlier endeavors were seen as acts of worship, engineering or nation building. And the people controlling the endeavors saw themselves as members of groups focused on specific callings such as generals, priests and architects. There is an important distinction to be drawn here between projects: ‘a temporary Endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result’ and the profession of project management; or at least ‘modern project management’. For a discipline to be considered a profession a number of attributes are generally considered necessary; these are: †¢ Practitioners are required to meet formal educational and entry requirements, †¢ autonomy over the terms and conditions of practice, a code of ethics, †¢ a commitment to service ideals, †¢ a monopoly over a discrete body of knowledge and related skills. Within this context, project management is best considered an ‘emerging profession’ that has developed during the last 30 to 40 years. Over this period project management associations around the world have developed a generally consistent view of the processes involved in ‘project management’, encoded these views into ‘Bodies of Knowledge’ (BoKs), described competent behaviors and are now certifying knowledgeable and/or competent ‘Project Managers’. Certainly, if ‘modern project management’ does not qualify as a fully fledged profession at this point in time, it will evolve into one fairly quickly. The Evolution of Project Management Tools The central theme running through the various project management concepts is that project management is an integrative process that has at its core, the balancing of the ‘iron triangle’ of time, cost and output. All three facets must be present for a management process to be considered project management. The evolution of cost and scope control into relatively precise processes occurred during the 14th and 18th Centuries respectively. Time management lacked effective measurement and control until the emergence of ‘critical path’ scheduling in the 1960s. The branch of management that gave rise to the development of the Critical Path Method of scheduling was Operational Research (OR). OR is an interdisciplinary science which uses methods such as mathematical modeling and statistics to assist decision making in complex real-world situations. It is distinguished by its ability to look at and improve an entire system, rather than concentrating on specific processes which was the focus of Taylor’s ‘scientific management’. The growth of OR was facilitated by the increasing availability and power of computers which were needed to carry out the large numbers of calculations typically required to analyze a system. [pic] Figure 1. The Iron Triangle The first ‘project’ to add science to the process of time control was undertaken by Kelley and Walker to develop the Critical Path Method (CPM) for E. I. du Pont de Numours. In 1956/57 Kelly and Walker started developing the algorithms that became CPM. The program they developed was trialled on plant shutdowns in 1957 And the first paper on critical path scheduling was published in 1959. The critical meeting to approve this project was held on the 7th May 1957 in Newark, Delaware, where DuPont and Remington Rand jointly committed US$226,400 to fund the project. The foundations of modern project management were laid in 1957; but it took another 12 years before Dr Martin Barnes first described the ‘iron triangle’ of time, cost and output in a course he developed for his UK clients in 1969 called ‘Time and Money in Contract Control’. PM AND INNOVATION: THE FUTURE Defining PM for Future The biggest challenge facing project management is answering the question ‘what is a project? ’ Until this question can be answered unambiguously the foundation of project management cannot be defined. Current definitions such as the PMBOK’s ‘a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result’ can apply to the baking of a cake as easily as the construction of a multi story building. They are both temporary endeavors to create a unique outcome but in all probability the baking of a cake is not a project. The traditional view of projects embedded in the various BoKs is derived from both the management theories underpinning ‘modern project management’ and the industrial base of early project management practitioners (construction / defense / engineering). The BoKs tend to treat projects as naturally occurring entities that need to be managed. This is an easy enough assumption when focusing on a building or a battle ship. There is a physical presence that occupies a defined space that needs creating in a defined timeframe to a defined scope. This view assumes project exists and project management is about transforming the raw materials of the project into a finished and useful form. Consequently it is the presence of the project itself that defines ‘project management’. The PMBOKs version is ‘The application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements’. However, if we cannot precisely define a ‘project’, there is no basis for project management and consequently no foundation for a useable theory of project management. Researchers and academics are starting to reverse the idea that a project is necessary for project management to exist and suggest it is the application of ‘project management’ to an endeavour that creates a project. Some of the ideas being discussed include: †¢ Projects as ‘Temporary Knowledge Organizations (TKOs)’. This school of thought focuses on the idea that the primary instrument of project management is the project team and the recognition that predictability is not a reality of project management. Some key ideas include: o The concept of the project team as a ‘complex adaptive system (or organism)’, living on the ‘edge of chaos’; responding and adapting to its surroundings (ie the project’s stakeholders) offers one new set of insights. o The idea of ‘Nonlinearity’ suggests that you can do the same thing several times over and get completely different results. Small differences may lead to big changes whilst big variations may have minimal effect. This idea questions the validity of ‘detailed programming’ attempting to predict the path of a project (the ‘butterfly effect’, constrained by ‘strange attractors’). The concept of ‘Complex Responsive Processes of Relating’ (CRPR) puts emphasis on the interaction among people and the essentially responsive and participative nature of the human processes of organizing and relating. According to the modern trend in these field, consequence of accepting these theories is to shift the focus of ‘project management’ from the object of the project to the people involved in the project (ie, its stakeholders), and to recognize that it is people who create the project, work on the project and close the project with all innovation. Consequently the purpose of most if not all project ‘control documents’ such as schedules and cost plans shift from being an attempt to ‘control the future’ this is impossible; to a process for communicating with and influencing stakeholders to encourage and guide their involvement in the project. Notwithstanding the advantages of project management, it would be unreasonable to expect all innovation to be carried out through projects. In fact, many ideas are generated by employees in a company on a regular basis, not only within project teams. Thus, there is certainly a room for functional, on-going organization of innovation process. Even more so, in certain situations project management can be detrimental to innovation. Aggeri and Segrestin (2007) show that the recent project development methods in automotive industry can induce negative effects on collective learning processes and these effects have managerial implications for innovative developments. Argument for Managing Innovation in Projects The origins of project management in the manufacturing and construction ndustries determine an engineering perspective, viewing a project as a task-focused entity, proceeding in a linear or similar way from the point of initiation to implementation. This view prevailed until comparatively recently. This view is seemingly in stark contrast with the nature of innovation. It is increasingly being acknowledged that the innovation is a complex non-linear process. The earliest view on innovation process as a pipeline model (whereby a given input is transformed to a specific output) has been largely abandoned. Presently, however, project management is increasingly recognised as a key generic skill for business management (Fangel, 1993), rather than a planning-oriented technique or an application of engineering sciences and optimization theory, in which project management has its roots (Soderlund, 2004). The â€Å"management by projects† has emerged as general mode of organizing for all forms of enterprise (Turner 2003). This new conceptualization of project management enables to embrace the non-linear nature of innovation. Even a creative and non-linear nature of innovation is often characterized as an organizational or management process, rather than spontaneous improvisation. Davila et al. (2006) state, Innovation, like many business functions, is a management process that requires specific tools, rules, and discipline. Hence, a project, with its defined objective, scope, budget and limitations, can be an appropriate setting of innovation. The other closely linked element in the new world of project management with innovation is embracing uncertainty. Writing on paper cannot control the future! Schedules do not control time; cost plans do not control costs. Plans outline a possible future and provided a basis for recognizing when things ‘are not going to plan’. For innovation project management to succeed, both project and senior management are going to need to embrace uncertainty and learn skills to manage it rather than expecting predictability and inevitably being disappointed by the variability of ‘reality’ as it unfolds. Challenges of Empirical Studies Scarcity and unreliability, or even lack of data poses a big challenge in research in both innovation and project management. A macro-level research n PM is obstructed by the lack of data on the number of projects, carried out by firms and public institutions, and their characteristics. Problems stem from the definition of a project and the non-disclosure policy of most companies. In such circumstances, PM research has tended to rely on case-studies or on small-scale tailor-made surveys. There i s a widely acknowledged lack of large-scale empirical research in PM (Kloppenborg and Opfer, 2002; Soderlund, 2004). It is claimed that the Independent Project Analysis (IPA) is the market leader in quantitative analysis of project management systems, i. . in project evaluation and project system benchmarking (IPA, 2007). All IPA analyses and research are based on proprietary databases. As of mid-2009, IPA’s databases contain more than 11,000 projects of all sizes ($20,000 to $25 billion) executed across the world. Each year, approximately 1,000 projects are added with representation from the many different industries served by IPA. Each project in our databases is characterized by over 2,000 project attributes, including technology, project scope, project type, project costs, year of authorization, and geographical location (IPA 2009). All information contained in the IPA databases is carefully protected and kept as confidential proprietary data (IPA, 2009). Due to the issues of confidentiality, access for academic researchers is restricted. In the innovation field, academic community has been increasingly using several sources of data, such as granted patents, tailor-made surveys, as well as other data provided by national statistical offices. European research on innovation uses several instruments to obtain data on innovation indicators and to assess national innovation performance. The two main instruments are the Community Innovation Survey (CIS) and the European Innovation Scorecard (EIS). As of 2009, five successful CIS surveys have been carried out: CIS1 (1992), CIS2 (1996), CIS3 (2001), CIS4 (2004) and CIS 2006. Each new round was characterized by an improved questionnaire, in line with the evolution of understanding of the phenomenon of innovation. The more recent surveys embraced understanding of innovation in a broader sense, and for example, paid more attention to service innovations. Further, it is expected that the future surveys will also include management techniques, organizational change, environmental benefits, and design and marketing issues. We argue that, taken into consideration the growing relevance of innovation projects, a clearer and explicit wording should be used in CIS questionnaire for determining whether innovation is organized and carried out in projects or functionally. CONCLUSIONS Innovation studies and project management as distinctive disciplines have been developing in a relative isolation from each other. The analysis in innovation studies domain has rarely explored the mechanisms and patterns of innovation in projects in contrast to traditional (functional or hierarchical) organization. However, since innovation management in companies is increasingly organized in projects, it is of utmost importance to directly address the interplay between innovation management and project management. In this paper, based on the relevant literature and insights from practice, we conceptually examined the relationships between these two research areas aiming at bridging the gap between them. It is widely acknowledged within the discipline of innovation studies that there is a high percentage of failure of innovation initiatives, in other words, failure is inevitable when managing innovation. The key skill set of the competent project manager will be identifying and managing stakeholder expectations using tools such as the Stakeholder circle to help identify the project’s key stakeholders. Innovation is perceived as a luxury, not as a necessity. Therefore, it is of high priority to manage innovation effectively and efficiently with constrained budgets.